WHAT ARE PUBLIC SERVICES?

Most autonomous communities are responsible for public services such as town planning and festivals.
Taxes are deducted from workers' salaries and profits that companies make. We pay an extra tax every time we buy something or use a service. This is sales tax or value added tax.
The government collects taxes. These taxes are spent on public services such as schools, hospitals, libraries, street cleaning, building roads and providing for people's pensions when they retire.

Hospitals are part of public services. Photo by Francis Tyers via wikipedia

HOW IS SPAIN ORGANISED?

Spain's 1978 Constitution established the organisation of the regions. It divided Spain's territory into 17 autonomous communities and 2 autonomous cities, Ceuta and Melilla, which are in North Africa.
There are 50 provinces.
Each autonomous community has its own Statute of Autonomy. The Statute of Autonomy defines:

• The territory of each autonomous community.
• The governmental institutions.
• Its official language(s), flag, coat of arms and anthem.

An autonomous community is subdivided into:

• A regional parliament, which has legislative powers.
• A government, which has executive powers.
• A Superior Court of Justice, which has judicial powers.

Photo from wikipedia.

By Emilio Gómez Fernández & Javi C. S. [GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html) or CC BY-SA 4.0-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

HOW IS POWER DISTRIBUTED IN SPAIN?

The Spanish Constitution established the basic laws of the country.
The Constitution established the division of powers: legislative, executive and judicial. each power is controlled by only one institution, so they're independent.
Legislative power is exercised by the Parliament (Cortes Generales).
Parliament makes the laws, approves the state budget and monitors the activity of the government.
It's made up of two parts: the lower house, or Congress (Congreso de los Diputados) and the upper house, or Senate (el Senado).

The Spanish Congress. Photo by Luis Javier Modino Martínez [CC BY 2.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

The Spanish Senate. By Lcsrns (Own work) [CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

Deputies work in Congress and Senators work in the Senate. The senators represent the autonomous communties.
Deputies and Senators are elected by citizens in general elections every four years.
Executive power is exercised by the government. The government is composed of its leader, the president, and the ministers. The ministers are responsible for specific areas such as economy, education, health or industry. The government headquarters is Moncloa Palace.

Moncloa Palace. By Flizzz http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Flizzz [GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html) or CC BY-SA 4.0-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

Judicial power is exercised by the judicial system. It interprets the law and decides who is obeying the law or not. The judicial system imposes punishment for those who break the law. Judges work in courts and tribunals.

HOW ARE ELECTROMAGNETS USED?

Many modern inventions use electromagnets.

ELECTRIC BELL

When the circuit is closed and the current flows through the circuit, it produces a magnetic field in the electromagnet. The hammer is attracted to the elctromagnet and hits the bell. The movement of the hammer breaks the circuit and the hammer returns to its original position. Then the cycle begins again.

MAGLEV
A magnetic levitation train uses electromagnets to levitate above its track.
The maglev has electromagnets in the base of the train.
The tracks have magnets which repel the electromagnets in the train.
The magnets above and in front of the train attract the magnets in the train, causing the train to move forward.


SPEAKERS AND MICROPHONES
Electric current travels through the coil of wire. This creates a magnetic field that switches on and off rapidly.
The magnetic field attracts the magnet, which is attached to the cone.
The cone vibrates rapidly, producing sound waves.

WHAT'S A DEMOCRACY?

Spain is a democracy. This means that there is freedom, justice and equality.
The United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights establishes fundamental human rights for all.

Eleanor Roosevelt and United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Spanish text. See page for author [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

So people have rights, but they also have responsibilities.
Rights in democracy (freedom to do something):

• The right to an education.
• The right to food and shelter.
• The freedom to live and travel wherever we choose.
• The freedom to express our opinions.
• The right to associate with others.
• The right to be treated equally by the law.

Resposibilities in democracy:

• we must obey the law.
• We must pay taxes to support public services.
• We must not tolerate discrimination because of religion or race.
• We should look after our environment.
• We should look after people who are weaker than us.
• We should be kind to animals.
• Voting.

WHAT ARE THE EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY?

THERMAL ENERGY
The electric current produces a little thermal energy as it travels through a wire, but it produces a lot of thermal energy travelling through other substances (in an oven...).

A toaster uses thermal energy from electricity. Nick carson at en.wikipedia [CC BY 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Electrolysis is a chemical reaction produced when an electric current flows through a liquid solution of charged particles. We us elctrolysis in electroplating: coating a metal object with a thin layer of another metal.

WHAT'S THE EARTH'S MAGNETIC FIELD LIKE?

The Earth has a magnetic field called the magnetosphere. It extends from the South Pole to the North Pole (it's as if the earth had a bar magnet in its centre). The North Pole is the South Pole of the Earth's magnetosphere.

Magnetosphere. By NASA (http://sec.gsfc.nasa.gov/popscise.jpg) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

 
WHAT CAUSES THE MAGNETOSPHERE?
The centre of the Earth is made of liquid iron. This liquid moves slowly as the Earth rotates causing a magnetic field to form around the whole planet.

USING A COMPASS
A compass has a magnetised steel needle that is balanced inside a container. The north pole of the needle is painted red. It is attracted to the south pole of the magnetosphere: the magnetic north pole of the Earth. It will always point north.

Compass. By Evan-Amos (Own work) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

WHY IS THE MAGNETOSPHERE IMPORTANT?
It deflects solar radiation from the Sun back into space. Radiation is harmful for plant and animal life on Earth.
It also helps us to navigate using a compass.

WHAT'S A BAR MAGNET?

Bar magnets are permanent magnets, they can't be switched on and off, they always have a magnetic field. They have two poles: north (positively charged) and south (negatively charged). They attract metals such as iron, steel, cobalt and nickel. They also attract and repel other magnets.

Bar magnet. Photo taken by Aney, 2006-03-12, GFDL via Wikimedia

WHAT DOES A MAGNETIC FIELD LOOK LIKE?
We can see the magnetic field of a bar magnet using iron filings.

By Alexander Wilmer Duff [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

HOW DO WE REPRESENT MAGNETIC FIELDS?
We draw lines from the north pole to the south pole of the magnet. There are more lines and they're closer together near the poles because the magnetic field is stronger there.

WHAT HAPPENS WHEN TWO MAGNETS ATTRACT OR REPEL EACH OTHER?
Look at the pictures:

Two magnets repelling. By Geek3 [GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html) or CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

Two magnets attracting. By Geek3 [GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html) or CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

HOW CAN WE IDENTIFY A MAGNET?
Magnets repel other magnets, but they don´t repel other substances.

HOW WAS ELECTROMAGNETISM DISCOVERED?

Hans Christian Oersted discovered that electric current produces a magnetic force. Oersted saw that an electric circuit switched on made the compass needle move, but he couldn't explain the phenomenon.

Picture from wikimedia

André-Marie Ampere decided to study that phenomenon. He discovered the electron, which produces both, electricity and magnetism. But he named it the 'electrodynamic molecule'. Later, other scientists named it the electron.

By Ambrose Tardieu [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

Michael Faraday discovered that by moving a loop of wire over a magnet, an electric current was produced in the wire. He invented the 'electromagnetic rotary device', the basis for the first electric motor or dynamo.

By Probably albumen carte-de-visite by John Watkins [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

Faraday Disk Generator. By Émile Alglave [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

SEPARATING MIXTURES WITH MAGNETS
Electromagnets are made from a wire coiled around an iron rod. The wire is connected to a power source. When the electric current flows along the wire a magnetic field is generated. When you stop the circuit, the electromagnet is switched off. Electromagnets are used in recycling plants to separate iron and steel from plastic, glass or other metals.

Homemade electromagnet. By Gina Clifford (cobalt_grrl on Flickr) [GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html) or CC BY-SA 4.0-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

Here you can see an electromagnet working:

WHAT'S OXIDATION?

Oxidation is a chemical reaction in which an atom loses one or more electrons to oxygen atoms. Oxidation causes changes to the properties and appearance of substances.
Types of oxydation:
Rusting: When iron is exposed to oxygen in the air, its electrons are lost. Rusting can cause problems in vehicles. To prevent this, vehicles are painted.
 

Oxidation in fruit: When the fruit is exposed to the air, its electrons are lost. When this happens, a chemical change takes place, and the part of the fruit that has oxidised is no longer good to eat.


Fermentation: is a chemical reaction in which an organism such as yeast or bacteria, changes sugar and carbohydrates into alcohol or an acid.

WHAT ARE CHEMICAL CHANGES?

Chemical changes occur when one or more substances combine to form a new substance. A chemical change is non-reversible.

Image from sjesci 

The process in which two or more substances combine chemically is called a chemical reaction.
Some chemical reactions produce thermal energy; these are called exothermic reactions.


Other reactions absorb thermal energy; these are called endothermic reactions.


Combustion, or burning, is the name for a chemical reaction in which oxygen combines with a fuel, such as wood, coal or natural gas. It is an exothermic reaction.


We use combustion in various ways:

• Petrol and diesel are burnt to power vehicles and to heat homes.
• Coal is burnt in power stations to generate electricity.
• We burn natural gas to cook and heat our homes.

Combustion causes problems:

• Most fuels produce carbon dioxide during combustion. Carbon dioxide contributes to global warming.
• Burning coal, petrol or diesel produce particles that pollute the air.
• Burning coal and diesel can produce an acid called sulphur dioxide. If sulphur dioxide mixes with rainwater, it produces acid rain.

HOW ARE MIXTURES SEPARATED?

Mixtures can be separated into their original components (because the components haven't been chemically combined). Several techniques can be used to separate mixtures: for example, filtration, distillation, evaporation or dissolution.

Filtration: This technique can be used to separate an insoluble solid from a mixture.

Picture via eschooltoday

Evaporation: This technique can be used to separate a soluble solid from a solution.

Photo via bbc.co.uk

Photo via bbc.co.uk

Photo via bbc.co.uk

Distillation: This technique can be used to separate a liquid from a solution or to separate two liquids.
 
Dissolution: This technique can be used to separate a soluble solid from an insoluble one.

WHAT'S A MIXTURE?

A mixture is a substance made up of two or more types of matter that aren't chemically combined.
There are two types of mixtures:
Homogeneous mixtures: It is a mixture that has a consistent color and texture. Every part of an homogeneous mixture has the same properties.

Homogeneous mixture Fondant au Chocolat. Photo by Ly. H via flickr

Heterogeneous mixture: It is a mixture that has a varied color or texture. Each substance in the mixture retains its specific properties.

Fruit Salad. Photo by: I, Bangin [GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html), CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/) or CC BY 2.5 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5)], via Wikimedia Commons

A solution is a mixture of one or more liquids, with one or more other substances. In a solution, the substances are dissolved in the liquid.
The liquid components of a solution are called solvents. The other components are called solutes.

Making a saline water solution by dissolving table salt in water. The salt is the solute and the water the solvent. Photo by Chris 73 / Wikimedia Commons [GFDL 1.3 (www.gnu.org/licenses/fdl-1.3.html) or CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

WHAT ARE THE BASIC LAWS OF REFLECTION?

Light is a form of energy that travels in waves.
Matter that is in a gaseous state is usually transparent: it doesn't reflect light.
Matter that is liquid usually has a smooth reflective surface.
Solid matter usually has a rougher surface than liquid, so it reflects light but they don't produce a reflection.
REFLECTION AND DIFFUSION:
When light hits a smooth surface, it's reflected regularly.

Image from https://www.orcagrowfilm.com/Articles.asp?ID=148

When light hits a rough surface, it's reflected irregularly. This is called diffusion.

Image from https://www.orcagrowfilm.com/Articles.asp?ID=148

ELECTRICITY:
All matter is made up of atoms. Each atom consists of protons, neutrons and one or more electrons.

By The original uploader was Fastfission at English Wikipedia [GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html), GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html) or CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/)], via Wikimedia Commons

 The protons (positive charge +) and neutrons (neutral: no charge) make up the nucleus. The electrons (negative charge -) rotate around the nucleus in orbits. Electricity is a form of energy that's created when electrons move from the orbit of one nucleus to that of another.
When atoms lose electrons, matter becomes positively charged.
When atoms gain electrons, matter becomes negatively charged.

HOW HAVE ART AND CULTURE DEVELOPED IN SPAIN IN THE 20TH CENTURY?

Spain has produced some of the most famous artists of this period.
Cubism and Surrealism were artistic movements that developed in the first half of the 20th century.
Cubism used geometric shapes to represent people and things.
Pablo Picasso was one of the inventors of Cubism. His painting Guernica is a good example.

Picasso. By Revista Vea y Lea (cuadrado por Juan Pablo Arancibia Medina) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

Guernica. Photo by jmussuto, via Bethany Lutheran College.

Surrealism represented imaginary scenes and fantasies. Salvador Dalí (The persistence of memory)

Salvador Dalí. By Roger Higgins, World Telegram staff photographer [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

The persistence of memory. Via Wikipedia

 and Joan Miró (Harlequin's carnival)

Joan Miró (1935). Photo by Carl Van Vechten [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

The Harlequin's Carnival. Photo from Wikipedia.

were important Surrealist artists.
Abstract art developed in the second half of the 20th century. It represented ideas rather than reality.
Eduardo Chillida was an important abstract sculptor (Eulogy to the Horizon).

Eduardo Chillida. Photo from Wikipedia.

By Roberto Sueiras Revuelta. (Own work) [GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html), CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/) or CC BY-SA 2.5-2.0-1.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5-2.0-1.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

The Generation of '27 was a group of poets who experimented with new styles of poetry and artistic expression.

The Generation of '27. Photo from https://kbenglishhlg.wikispaces.com/Generation+27

The group included Miguel Hernandez and Federico García Lorca. The Civil War split the group: García Lorca was killed by the Nationalists and Miguel Hernández died in prison.

Federico García Lorca. See page for author [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

Miguel Hernández. See page for author [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

WHAT HAS HAPPENED IN SPAIN SINCE 1975?

Today, Spain is a democracy. Every four years there are elections to choose the government.
After Juan Carlos became king in 1975, the transition to democracy began. It ended in 1978 with a new constitution. Important reforms were introduced by the prime minister, Adolfo Suarez.

By Verhoeff, Bert / Anefo (Nationaal Archief) [CC BY-SA 3.0 nl (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/nl/deed.en)], via Wikimedia Commons

• All political parties were made legal.
• there was a democratic election in 1977.
• A new costitution was written.

By Infinauta (Own work) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

 In 1978 people voted in favor of the constitution in a referendum. It established that:
Citizens have rights and responsibilities. Everyone must obey the law.
Citizens vote for their representatives freely in elections.
Spain recognises regional autonomy.
Spain is a parliamentary monarchy. The monarch is head of state but doesn´t govern or make laws.
Government is separated into three branches: the legislative, executive and judicial branches.

Since the transition two parties have governed Spain most of the time: the Socialist party (PSOE) and the Popular party (PP).
In 1981 there was an attemp military coup against the government led by Tejero. It failled.

Tejero. Photo by Manuel Pérez Barriopedro

In 1986 Spain became a member of the EEC (now UE).

By MPD01605 [CC BY-SA 2.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

In 1992 the euro replaced the peseta as Spain´s currency.

By Iu96 (Own work) [GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html) or CC BY 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

By Avij (talk · contribs) (Own work) [ECB decisions ECB/2003/4 and ECB/2003/5 or Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons</a>

WHAT WAS SPAIN LIKE DURING FRANCO'S DICTATORSHIP?

After the Nationalists won the Spanish Civil War, Franco established his dictatorship. He took complete control of the country.
This dictatorship was based on three pillars: the military, the Catholic Church and the Falange.

• The constitution was abolished and there were no more democratic elections.
• Political parties became illegal.
• Trade unions becme illegal.
• Freedom of press was controlled by censorship.
• There was no regional autonomy.

Many people who opposed Franco went to live in the United Kingdom, France and other countries. Republicans who stayed in Spain were often imprisoned or killed.
In the 1940s and 1950s: there wasn't much food and most people were very poor. Spain didn't participate in the Second World War but Franco supported Germany. Spain wasn't allowed to be a member of the United Nations because it was a dictatorship.

In the 1960s: the economy started to improve. Tourism started to become important. Franco named Juan carlos de Borbón as his sucessor.
In the 1970s: Franco was ill and old. His supporters were divided: some wanted to continue as before and others wanted reform. Admiral Carrero Blanco was prime minister. He wanted to continue the dictatorship without any reforms. He was killed by the Basque terrorist group ETA in 1973. In 1975 Franco died and Juan Carlos became King of Spain.

WHAT WAS THE SPANISH CIVIL WAR?

In July 1936 a military rebellion began in Spanish Morocco. Its leader was General Francisco Franco.

Francisco Franco. Via Wikimedia Commons

The rebels took control of parts of Spain. The country became divided between areas controlled by the Nationalists (the rebels led by Franco) and areas controlled by the Second Republic.

Spanish Civil War August-September 1936. Booshank at en.wikipedia [CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0) or GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html)], from Wikimedia Commons

Franco and the Nationalists were opposed to the changes of the Secon Republic. They wanted to replace the republic with a right-wing dictatorship (Germany and Italy supported them). The Republicans supported the Second Republic (Russia, the Soviet Union, supported them).
For three years there was fighting, until the Nationalists took control of Madrid. The war ended in April 1939. The Nationalists won, the Second Republic ended and Franco established a right-wing dictatorship.

Consequences from the war:

• 365.000 people died.
• Many people lost their family.
• People were imprisoned or killed because of their opinions (Nationalists who lived in the Republican zones and Republicans who lived in the Nationalists zones).
• Roads, bridges, railways and buildings were destroyed.
• People became ill because there wasn't enough food.